List of architectural structures of ancient Rome. Temples of ancient Rome. Architecture of the Roman Empire

One of the world's most ancient civilizations, the Holy Roman Empire, gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only a rich literary heritage, but also a stone chronicle. The people who inhabited this state have long ceased to exist, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. On April 21, the day of the founding of the city on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, the Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland during the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikia the Ancient, who turned it into the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and Sabines took place, elections to the Senate took place, judges sat and services were held.

From west to east, the sacred road of the empire runs through the entire Roman Forum - Via Appia, or Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum contains the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings from the Tarquin family. He died several times during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that “The Senate and people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire.” It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

Construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to the Flavians: Vespasian and his son Titus. Its length was 33 m, and its width extended to 22 m. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and was connected in ancient times to the House of the Vestals. The Holy Fire was constantly maintained in the inner room. Initially, he was guarded by the king’s daughters, then they were replaced by vestal priestesses, who also held services in honor of Vesta. This temple contained a cache of symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that there was an outlet for smoke in the roof, fires often broke out in the temple. It was saved and reconstructed several times, but in 394 Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed. Gradually the building deteriorated and fell into disrepair.

Trajan's Column

A monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the “body” of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.

The column's trunk is spiraled 23 times by a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - with a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells the story of Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, the period being 101–102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the figure of a winged Victoria inscribing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, and the details of the weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to Victory, the relief also contains other allegorical figures: the Danube in the image of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with her face covered with a veil, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Marcus Vipsanias Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT" - "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this." Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, and the majesty of the artistic image. Devoid of external decorations, the cylindrical building is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly corresponds to the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting amazing proportionality to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that make up a monolithic wall, between which there are niches that give the massive building a feeling of airiness. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick and the dome is much lighter than in reality. A round hole in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich decoration of the interior space. Everything has reached our days almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings of Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building, along the perimeter of the arena there were 80 large arches, with smaller ones on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall of 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is of the Doric order, the second is of the Ionic order, and the third is of the Corinthian order. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen were installed on the first two tiers.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators to relax, where noisy merchants sold various goods. The outside of the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and there were beautiful statues along its perimeter. There were 64 entrances to the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were privileged seats for the nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiator fights took place, but also real naval battles, was wooden.

Nowadays, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: “As long as the Colosseum stands, Rome will stand; if the Colosseum disappears, Rome will disappear and with it the whole world.”

Triumphal Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. The arch is decorated with half-columns of the composite order, four figures of Victoria, bas-reliefs depicting Titus controlling the quadriga, victorious a procession with trophies, including the main shrine of the Jewish temple - the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the “bath building”; through the two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides there were rooms for meetings, recitations, etc. Among the many different rooms located on the right and left intended for washing rooms, it should be noted two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with figures of athletes. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the Baths of Caracalla there once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, and the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose what they liked: some, after washing themselves, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch wrestling and gymnastic exercises, and could exercise themselves; others wandered around the park, admired the statues, and sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the baths were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portunus and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - the Bull. In early Republican times, ships moored here and there was a brisk livestock trade, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with Ionic columns. The temple has been well preserved since around 872 AD. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, and in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The structure dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m, decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to this day. In 1132 AD. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Champ de Mars

“Campus Martius” was the name of the part of Rome located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field there was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant subsequently, while the remaining parts were built up.

Mausoleum of Hadrian

The architectural monument was designed as a tomb for the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with an earth mound, the top of which was decorated with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the Sun god, controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure began to be used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have modified its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the apartments of the Pope, a prison, a library, the Hall of Treasures and the Secret Archive. From the terrace of the castle, above which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient buildings that were used as burial places, mostly during the period of early Christianity. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. According to one version, the labyrinths of underground passages arose on the site of ancient quarries; according to another, they formed on private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.

During the III-II centuries. BC Rome was busy with continuous struggle, both internal and external. Rome was ruled by an oligarchy represented by the patricians, who ruled in the Senate and the People's Assembly. This period ended with civil wars and the rise to power of Emperor Augustus in 27 BC. During the Roman Republic, a new form of architecture arose that included Etruscan-Italian traditions, borrowings of Greek artistic techniques and Roman construction methods. Very few structures from that time have survived, but even those that exist speak of the spirit of searching for new building materials, types of buildings and methods of decorative decoration. The Romans managed to create their own architectural style.

Corinthian capital

The early Roman Corinthian capital was wider than the later one, with fleshy acanthus leaves and large flowers on the abacus. This capital is from the Temple of Vesta in Rome, where there were twenty such capitals on fluted columns.

Early buildings already used concrete, which gradually became an independent building material, although small irregularly shaped stones connected with concrete were used to cover the outer surfaces of the walls. This is the so-called incorrect lining - incern.

Little remains of the Basilica Emilia except fragments. From excavations and images on medals it is known that it faced the forum with the longer side. During the reconstruction of Caesar's forum, it was obscured by a portico erected in front of it.

Circus Maximus (IV century BC)

The circus hosted horse racing and gladiatorial competitions. It was located in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine and was 1,968 feet (600 m) long.
Over time, benches were built there and a low wall was installed - the back, around which the races took place. At the ends of the back there were installed metas - conical obelisks.

The construction of Pompeii dates back to the 3rd century. BC. It is located in Southern Italy. In 63 it was damaged by an earthquake, and in 79 it was covered with a thick layer of ash after the eruption of Vesuvius. Excavations that began at the end of the 18th century revealed an early Roman settlement, unusually rich in architecture. Houses and monuments remained untouched. The surviving buildings are what little remains of the earliest Roman structures, such as the basilica or the baths. The south of Italy was heavily influenced by Greek art, and Pompeii is no exception. The fashion for the Greek style can be seen in the decoration of the houses of wealthy people.

The atrium is a large courtyard in the center of the building. It had a ceiling with a square hole in the center through which rainwater flowed into the pool. Depending on the design of the floors, there were several types of atrium. The Corinthian one was the lightest, since the large number of columns made it possible to expand the hole in the roof.

Domus (2nd century BC)

The Italian domus is of Etruscan origin.
It consisted of rooms grouped around an atrium - a courtyard. Behind the atrium there was often a peristyle. In Pansa's house it consisted of sixteen Ionic columns with a pool in the center. The façade facing the street was for rent.

Basilica

Perhaps the basilica comes from a Greek stoa, which was covered over time. Basilicas were business centers. The basilica in Pompeii was entered from the front, and inside there was a platform for public performances.

Republican buildings near Rome

Trends in architecture during the Republic outside Rome in the 3rd-1st centuries. BC were the same as in the capital. The Romans lacked the large marble quarries that the Greeks had, so they used local tuff, travertine and peperine.

At the same time they used brick. The development of unusually strong concrete influenced the designs of structures erected. The concrete was usually covered with a layer of brick, masonry or plaster. The temples of this period combine Etruscan-Italic traditions with the Hellenistic order.

The round temple of Vesta, overlooking the gorge at Tivoli, is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth. Temples from this period are often well placed in the landscape.

The elongated proportions of the temple, Corinthian columns with a frieze of bull heads - all this undoubtedly comes from Greek architecture. The design of the temple, built from local tuff and travertine, is typically Roman.

Buildings of Augustus

When, after the civil war, Augustus came to power in 27 BC, he ushered in a century of peace and prosperity that lasted two hundred years.

He began building roads, bridges and aqueducts. Unfortunately, few secular buildings from that time have reached us. Augustus apparently followed in many respects the example of his adoptive father, Julius Caesar, restoring the forum and completing the Theater of Marcellus, the earliest and most obvious example of arched construction using the order. They began to use volcanic sand – pozzolan – for cement and invented a process for slowly drying it. The Age of Augustus remained extremely conservative in its tastes.

On the semicircular facade of the Theater of Marcellus (13 BC, dedicated to the memory of the grandson of Augustus, Marcellus), there were three tiers of arched galleries framed by semi-columns: at the bottom - Doric, in the next tiers - Ionic and Corinthian. The combination of arched structures and orders is characteristic of Rome.

Only two tiers of the Theater of Marcellus have survived, on the arches of which the Ionic and Doric orders are superimposed. It is not known whether there was a third, Corinthian stage or a simple Attic one. Columns of the Roman Doric order always had a base.

Roman theaters were different from Greek ones. Semicircular in plan rather than circular, they were built on substructures and not necessarily on a hillside. Theaters were usually three-tiered, and the audience got from one tier to another via stairs, and radial corridors led them into the auditorium. The inside of the theater usually consisted of three tiers of marble steps.

Augustus claimed that he found Rome stone, but left it marble. This is true mainly in relation to temples, many of which he built and restored. In his biography of Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, he claimed to have restored eighty-two temples in one year in Rome itself alone. The temples of this period are based on Republican traditions, combining Greek and Etruscan influences. They are characterized by strict clarity and orderliness, elongated proportions. Temples were often placed on a high podium. Most of the Augustan temples are Corinthian, reflecting the taste for intricate details and the use of marble.

Until quarries were opened in Luna in 20 BC, marble remained an expensive building material. During the time of Augustus, Luna marble was already actively used; its whiteness combined perfectly with the imported colored marble. In the Temple of Concordia (10 AD), marble is used throughout.

Architecture was constantly used by the Romans for political purposes. During the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), Augustus vowed to avenge the death of Julius Caesar and build a temple in his memory. The temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger) in the Forum of Augustus was donated to the city. In plan, the Temple of Mars Ultor is an eight-column pycnostyle of the Italic type, complemented by an apse located above the floor level and closing the main axis of the temple. The temple is almost square, on a high podium.

The Forum Augustus is located perpendicular to the Forum of Julius Caesar and retained the main features of its plan, but the temple was moved close to the rear wall of the forum, the side walls formed two semicircles.
Flanking the temple, they gave the square a typically Italian character with a central axial composition

Flavia

Emperor Vespasian (reigned 69-79) founded the only imperial dynasty - the Flavian dynasty. Like his predecessors (the Julio-Claudians), they rejected the architectural asceticism of the Republican and Augustan eras. Their legacy is an intricate whimsy that could only emerge in an age of peace and plenty. House and palace architecture created the forms of vaults. Perfect mastery of concrete and construction technology made it possible to cover large spans without supports, for example: the octagon covered with a closed vault in the Golden House of Nero. In 64, a fire destroyed much of the city and Nero passed a law prohibiting the use of wood and recommended cement floors and arcaded ceilings at lower levels.

Reticulate is a reticulate masonry in which the outer surface of a concrete wall is lined with small, carefully laid pyramid-shaped stones. Their flat bases extend outward and form a mesh pattern, and their sharp ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall.

The Tuscan order was originally an Etruscan variant of the Doric, although the Romans perceived it as specifically Italic. Unlike the Doric, in the Tuscan order the columns have a base and a high capital and a cornice without a mutula.

Or the Flavian amphitheater, was founded by Vespasian in 70 as a gift to the city of Rome. It was opened by his son Titus in 80 and completed by Domitian. The Colosseum was built on the site of an artificial lake in the gardens surrounding the Golden House of Nero. The clay soil formed an ideal base for the enormous weight of the building. The nearby colossus, a huge statue of Nero, may have given the amphitheater its name. Unlike the selfishly wasteful Nero, Vespasian wisely gave the Romans an amphitheater where gladiator fights took place, creating the first permanent amphitheater in the city. The structure is very traditional in plan and decoration, but its dimensions: 616 x 512 feet (188 x 156 m) make it unique.

The materials were chosen deliberately to achieve these dimensions and weights. The bases are made of concrete, the walls are made of tuff, the upper part is made of concrete lined with bricks. The outer part is made of travertine. The support for the transitions was a rigid structural frame consisting of pylons and cylindrical vaults. In addition, the concrete structure of the Colosseum contained many brick arches, which acted as relief arches and formed the frame of the vaults.

Wooden posts were inserted into the holes in the brackets of the attic cornice, to which were tied the ends of the canopy stretchers - velarium, which was stretched over the amphitheater to protect spectators from the sun. It was held in place by a system of blocks.

The Spanish soldier Trajan became emperor in 98. He is known as one of the great builder-emperors, but, unfortunately, little has come down to us from his time. Trajan's Markets are a happy exception. These streets of stone and concrete shops rose on the Quirinal Hill above Trajan's Forum. He built baths on the site of Nero's Golden House, which followed the plan of Titus's baths. Trajan also reconstructed the port and shipyards in Rome. But his most ambitious project is the Forum Romanum (Roman Forum). In general, the architect of the forum used many of the techniques developed before him, in particular the semicircles of the Forum of Augustus.

Libraries. Rome

Two magnificent libraries for Latin and Greek manuscripts were built in Trajan's Forum. They were located one opposite the other and had entrances onto the square, in the center of which stood Trajan’s Column. The podium in them was replaced by galleries on high columns.

The ashes of Emperor Trajan were immured at the base of the column. The column had an internal spiral staircase and was topped by a gilded bronze statue, which was later replaced by a statue of St. Petra.

A monumental marble column (155 feet high or 47 m) was erected to honor Trajan's victories in the war with the Dacians. The main feature of the column is the relief frieze, which stretches from the podium to the capital with a long spinal ribbon.

Adrian

The architecture of the Age of Hadrian (117-138) sought to combine Roman forms with the architectural and decorative forms of Greece and the Hellenistic East. Its characteristic feature was the construction of concrete and brick, as well as the development of vaulted and domed structures, for example at the villa at Tivoli. The architecture of the Baroque era in its plasticity, the relationship of spaces, the play of light and shadow. Hadrian's deep admiration for Greece is evident in most of the buildings of his time. He himself lived for a long time in Athens and built a lot here. Sometimes Adrian also acts as an architect, designing buildings among others, for example, the Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome.

Country Villa: Villa Adriana. Tivoli (c. 118-134)

The name "Adriana's Villa" is misleading. It is rather a palace located in the countryside. It is characterized by a free picturesque layout, a delightful combination of the water surface with architecture, sculpture and green landscape. The buildings used concrete, as well as technically complex structures.

Externally, it is a peripterus with an elongated cella, but it consists of two identical temples, touching apses, in one of which a statue of Venus was placed, in the other - of Roma.

It is known that the temple was designed by Hadrian himself. The architect Apollodorus dared to criticize the temple for its disproportion, for which he paid with his life. Situated on a high pedestal, it was surrounded by a colonnade of gray granite with white marble capitals.

The Pantheon occupied a special place in Roman and world architecture. It was built around 118-128. Hadrian on the site of the old Pantheon, erected by the consul Marcus Agrippa, but surpassed it in size and appearance. The temple was dedicated to all the gods and repeated the round shape of the old Pantheon, which, apparently, can be explained by the desire to preserve the continuity of traditions. It is curious that the inscription from the Temple of Agrippa was preserved on the portico. It is one of the greatest surviving buildings from antiquity. It was erected on the Campus Martius and was a kind of counterweight to the Colosseum. In 609, the Pantheon was turned into a church by Pope Boniface.

The temple consists of three parts: a domed rotunda, an adjacent rectangular portico and a transitional part between the portico and the rotunda. The walls in the lower part were apparently covered with marble, and in the upper part they were plastered. The dome was covered with gilded tiles.

The interior is dominated by the hemisphere of a grandiose dome. At its highest point there was a hole - opion, through which light penetrated. The interior decoration of the Pantheon reflects typically Roman expressiveness. This is the result of the use of concrete, which allows more freedom in the organization of internal space and allows the creation of buildings of significant scale.

The dome of the Pantheon surpasses in size all similar structures not only of antiquity, but also of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance, up to the 19th century. Its diameter—141 feet (43 m)—is equal to its height, which is half the height of the entire building, a ratio recommended by Vitruvius.

The Age of the Severans in Rome

The Severan emperors came to power in 193 after civil wars. The diminishing power and influence of Rome and the strengthening of the provinces only seemed to embolden them to build even more grandiose structures.

Their main contribution to the architecture of Rome was their extensive bath complexes. The main features of the late Roman baths had already been found in the baths of Trajan and Titus in the 1st century. – this is axial symmetry and sequence of arrangement of rooms. The size of the Sever's buildings was new: the Baths of Caracalla occupied 50 acres (20 hectares) and accommodated 1,600 people at a time. The use of concrete vaults and arched structures made it possible to expand these huge spaces without external supports.

A marble triumphal arch was erected at the foot of the Capitol and dedicated to the emperor's victories in Mesopotamia.
A special feature of the arch is the internal openings in the middle pylons. The Arch of Septimius Severus was richly decorated with sculpture. Each barrel vault above the aisle is covered with coffered flowers surrounded by acanthus leaves.

Septisonium (203 g)

A colossal decoration placed on the southern slope of the Palatine and obscuring the substructures of the imperial palace. It was destroyed in 1588. The wall was decorated with three-tiered porticoes alternating with exedra. Colored marble columns, a statue of the emperor in the center, fountains and statues in the exedra gave the building a solemn appearance.

Empire of the North

In the vast empire of the Severus (193-305), new architectural types and styles were developed. The Romans brought their traditions to the province, but they changed to suit local building practices. Outside of Rome, concrete was rarely used, which limited the possibilities.

The dome of the Mausoleum of Diocletian in Split, for example, was entirely made of brick, which limited its size. In the provinces the stone continued to be used long after it had ceased to be used in Rome. Freedom in the use of classical orders was also characteristic of the provinces, which made it possible to create new architectural forms.

This is one of the few well-preserved temples of the ensemble in Baalbek (now Lebanon). The temple is typically Roman, with a deep portico and a large cella on a high podium. But its height is rather Hellenistic.

The rich interior of the Temple of Bacchus is one of the few well-preserved to this day. Its limestone walls are decorated with classical ornaments and orders that rise to the full height of the building. Between the columns there are niches, some with a pediment ending, others round.

A four-column portico screened the round cella, giving the centric temple the frontal axial orientation favored by the Romans. The bracing of the podium and entablature, which was supported by Corinthian columns, created an almost Baroque plasticity.

Late Empire

Under Emperor Constantine, two important events took place that changed the course of the further development of Roman architecture. In 313 the emperor recognized Christianity and became a Christian himself, and in 330 he made Constantinople his capital. The ever-increasing threat from the northern tribes and political instability led to a decrease in the construction level. In technical terms, structures became simpler; there were frequent cases of dismantling dilapidated buildings and reusing their stone, columns, parts, and reliefs. Stone carving was no longer so sophisticated and complex. But there were exceptions, such as the construction of Aurelius' walls around Rome. Emperor Maxcentius even built a new villa and hippodrome for himself next to the Appian Way. The late empire (30b-340s) became the transition from Rome to Byzantium.

The basilica was begun by Maxcentius and completed by Constantine, during which the entrance was moved to the middle of the long side, which caused the addition of an apse opposite it.

Three side bays on each side of the central nave serve as buttresses supporting the spread of the heavy vault. The central nave of the basilica (80 x 25 m, 35 m high) was covered with three concrete cross vaults. It rested on massive pillars and arches of the transverse naves.

Used since the time of Augustus, brick was used as spacers in concrete and as a facing material. Concrete became the predominant building material in the late empire. The stone was hardly used except in triumphal arches.

The composition of a characteristic Roman urban ensemble - the form bears traces of the influence of the compositions Greek Agora and people's housing.

The predominant type of developed residential building was atrium-peristyle. Usually it was located on an elongated site, fenced off from the streets by blank external walls. The front part of the house was occupied by an atrium - an enclosed space, on the sides of which there were living rooms and utility rooms. In the center of the atrium there was a pool, above which an open part was left in the roof for lighting and drainage of water into the pool. Behind the atrium, through the tablinum, there was a peristyle with a garden inside. The entire composition developed in depth along the axis with a consistent opening of the main spaces.

IN Roman forums The same idea of ​​a closed axial composition - an order peristyle, but increased to the size of a city square - was reflected. In the initial period, forums usually served as markets and along their perimeter, shops and sometimes other public buildings adjoined the galleries. Over time, they turned into ceremonial squares for public meetings, ceremonies, religious events, etc.

The ideological and compositional center was the temple, located in the middle of the narrow side of the rectangular square on its main axis. Towering on the podium, he dominated the composition. In plan, the temple had the shape of a rectangle, to which a portico was attached. A similar composition of the temple was traditional in Rome and had its origins in the most ancient types of temples of the Etruscan-Archaic period. In the composition of the forum, the frontal construction of the temple emphasized its deep-axial structure, and a rich portico (of the composite, Corinthian, or less often Ionic order) accentuated the entrance to the temple. Beginning with the Republican period, several forums were successively erected in Rome. Later emperors interpreted the forum as a monument to their own glory.

In its splendor, luxury, size and complexity of the composition it stands out Forum of Emperor Trajan(architect Apollodorus of Damascus, 112-117). In addition to the main square and the temple, a five-span elongated hall was erected on it - basilica with an area of ​​55x159 m and two symmetrical library buildings, between which a memorial was erected in a small area Trajan's Column 38 m high. Its marble trunk is covered with a spiral band of bas-relief with 2500 figures depicting episodes of Trajan’s victorious campaigns. The triumphal arch serves as the main entrance, the statue of the emperor is installed in the center of the square, the temple is in its depths. Colonnades and porticoes made of marble, which had various and sometimes enormous sizes, were the main motif of the ensemble.

Built in conjunction with forums and on main roads, triumphal arches are one of the most common types of memorial structures in Rome. Arched and vaulted forms initially became widespread in utilitarian structures - bridges and aqueducts.

Palace construction took place on a huge scale in Rome. Especially stood out Imperial Palace on the Palatine, consisting of the palace itself for ceremonial receptions and the emperor’s home. The ceremonial premises were located around a vast peristyle courtyard. The main room - the throne room - was amazing in its size.

The hall was covered with a cylindrical vault with a span of 29.3 m, which rose 43-44 m above the floor level. The main premises of the residential part were also grouped around peristyles on the terraces of the hills, using villa construction techniques. The construction of villas also became widespread in Rome. In addition to large palace complexes, the principles of landscape architecture, which have been intensively developed since the 1st century BC, are implemented in them to the greatest extent. (first half of the 2nd century, etc.).

The most grandiose public buildings of Rome, carried out during the imperial period, are associated with the development of arched concrete structures.

Roman theaters were based on Greek traditions, but unlike Greek theaters, the seats of which were located on natural mountain slopes, were free-standing buildings with a complex substructure supporting the seats for spectators, with radial walls, pillars and stairs and passages inside the main semicircular volume ( Theater of Marcellus in Rome, II century BC, which accommodated about 13 thousand spectators, etc.).

Colosseum (Collosseum)(75-80 AD) - the largest amphitheater in Rome, intended for gladiator fights and other competitions. Elliptical in plan (dimensions in the main axes are about 156x188 m) and grandiose in height (48.5 m), it could accommodate up to 50 thousand spectators.

In plan, the structure is divided by transverse and circular passages. A system of main distribution galleries was built between the three outer rows of pillars. A system of stairs connected the galleries with exits evenly spaced in the funnel of the amphitheater and external entrances to the building, arranged along the entire perimeter.

The structural basis consists of 80 radially directed walls and pillars supporting the ceiling vaults. The outer wall is made of travertine squares; in the upper part it consists of two layers: an inner one of concrete and an outer one of travertine. Marble and knock were widely used for facing and other decorative works.

With a greater understanding of the properties and performance of the material, the architects combined different types of stone and concrete compositions. In elements that experience the greatest stress (in columns, longitudinal arches, etc.), the most durable material is used - travertine; radial tuff walls are lined with brick and partially relieved by brick arches; In order to lighten the weight, the inclined concrete vault uses light pumice as a filler. Brick arches of various designs penetrate the thickness of the concrete both in the vaults and in the radial walls. The “frame” structure of the Colosseum was functionally expedient, provided lighting for internal galleries, passages and stairs, and was economical in terms of material consumption.

The Colosseum also provides the first known example in history of a bold solution to tent structures in the form of a periodically arranged covering. On the wall of the fourth tier, brackets were preserved that served as supports for the rods, to which a giant silk awning was attached using ropes, protecting spectators from the scorching rays of the sun.

The external appearance of the Colosseum is monumental due to its enormous size and the unity of the plastic design of the wall in the form of a multi-tiered arcade. The system of orders gives the composition scale and, at the same time, a special character of the relationship between the plastic and the wall. At the same time, the facades are somewhat dry, the proportions are heavy. The use of an order arcade introduced tectonic duality into the composition: a multi-tiered, complete order system here serves exclusively decorative and plastic purposes, creating only an illusory impression of the order frame of the building, visually lightening its mass.

Roman baths- complex complexes of numerous rooms and courtyards intended for ablution and various activities related to recreation and entertainment. In Rome, 11 large imperial baths and about 800 small private baths were built.

Pantheon in Rome(about 125) is the most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple, in which the diameter of the dome reached 43.2 m. In the Pantheon, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating the largest large-span domed space in Rome (unsurpassed until the 20th century) were brilliantly resolved.

The spherical vault is made of horizontal layers of concrete and rows of baked bricks, representing a monolithic mass devoid of a frame. To lighten the weight, the dome gradually decreases in thickness towards the top, and a lightweight aggregate - crushed pumice stone - is introduced into the concrete composition. The dome rests on a 6 m thick wall. The foundation is concrete with travertine filler. As the wall rises, the travertine is replaced by lighter tuff, and in the upper part by crushed brick. The filler for the lower zone of the dome is also crushed brick. Thus, in the design of the Pantheon, a system was consistently implemented to lighten the weight of the concrete aggregate.

The system of unloading brick arches in the thickness of the concrete evenly distributes the forces of the dome onto the abutments and unloads the wall above the niches, reducing the load on the columns. A multi-tiered system of arches with a clearly defined subordination of the main and secondary parts made it possible to rationally distribute efforts in the structure, freeing it from inert mass. She contributed to the preservation of the building despite earthquakes.

The artistic structure of the building is determined by its structural form: a powerful domed volume on the outside, a single and integral space inside. The centric volume of the rotunda from the outside is interpreted as an axial frontal composition. In front of the majestic eight-column portico of the Corinthian order (the height of the columns is 14 m), there previously existed a rectangular courtyard with a ceremonial entrance and a triumphal arch similar to a forum. The developed space under the portico with four rows of intermediate columns seems to prepare the visitor for the perception of the vast space of the interior.

The dome, at the top of which there is a round light opening with a diameter of 9 m, dominates the interior. Five rows of caissons decreasing upward create the impression of a domed “frame”, visually lightening the massif. At the same time, they give the dome plasticity and a scale commensurate with the divisions of the interior. The order of the lower tier, emphasizing deep niches, effectively alternates with massive supports lined with marble.

The intermediate strip of the attic between the order and the dome, with a small scale of division, contrastsly emphasizes the shapes of the dome and the main order. The expressive tectonics of the composition is combined with the effect of diffused lighting pouring from above and subtle color nuances created by the marble cladding. The rich, festively majestic interior contrasts with the appearance of the Pantheon, where the simplicity of the monumental volume dominates.

An important place in the construction was occupied by covered halls - basilicas, which served for various kinds of meetings and tribunal sessions.

The following architectural eras are distinguished in the architectural traditions of Ancient Rome:

• Age of the Antonines (138 - 192)
• Age of the North (193 - 217)

The Age of Kings (753-510 BC) and the period of the early Republic (V - IV centuries)

The oldest era of Roman architecture, falling during the period of the kings (according to the ancient tradition 753-510 BC) and during the early republic (V - IV centuries), is very little known to us. In any case, in those days the Romans did not show any significant creative activity in the field of creating original architectural forms; During this period, Rome was culturally, and initially politically, dependent on Etruria. The materials we have not only about Roman, but also about Etruscan architecture of this time are extremely scarce.

The oldest Etruscan temples known to us date back to the 6th century. BC e. They were rectangular buildings, elongated in plan, covered with a gable roof, with a very deep portico, which occupied half of the entire building. The wooden columns were placed very far from one another; in shape they most closely resemble the Dorian ones, but had bases, a smooth trunk and a highly developed abacus.

The entablature was also made of wood and was richly covered, like the roof of the temple, with painted relief decorations in terracotta.

This type was Temple of Juno near Falerii. Its deep portico was supported by three rows of columns, six in each. On each of the sides the cella was framed by three columns arranged in a row. There were no premises corresponding to pronaos or opisphodom in the temple. The small cella was divided by longitudinal walls into three long and narrow rooms; the rear wall of the cella closed all the buildings, since its wings, protruding beyond the side walls, reached the line of colonnades on the sides of the temple.

The temple of Juno was built in 509 in a completely similar plan. Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the lower parts of which have survived to the present day. The temple stood on a high podium. The three-part cella of the temple was dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

The so-called Tullianum- a small, round building, initially covered with a pseudo-vault of gradually moving stones.

Subsequently, the upper part of the vault was dismantled, and an oblong building, covered with a semicircular vault, was built above Tullianum, which served as a prison in Rome.

ABOUT residential buildings We can judge the period described mainly by Italian terracotta urns reproducing the shapes of huts. The oldest of these urns go back to the first centuries of the first millennium; judging by these monuments, the structure of the dwellings was very simple: they were round huts with a high thatched roof, reinforced with poles and branches. The light source in these buildings was the doors. In the following era, the Romans represented the home of Romulus in this form; Apparently, the round shape of the Temple of Vesta is a relic of this tradition.

Subsequently, a rectangular house in plan became widespread, in the center of which there was a large room - the atrium, where the hearth was located. The remaining rooms were located around the atrium. Perhaps initially closed, the atrium then became open: light penetrated into the room through a hole in the roof (compluvium), and water flowed through it during rain into a special tank located under the compluvium (impluvium).

A fairly large Etruscan urn located in Berlin, made of limestone, gives us an idea of ​​the external appearance of houses of this type.

One of the early houses of Pompeii, known as Casa del Chirurgo, in its oldest part, built of limestone and dating no later than the 3rd century. BC e., is a building of exactly the type described. The atrium, located in the center of this house, had a beamed ceiling that rested solely on the walls and did not have supports in the form of pillars or columns.

Both in the early period and in the later period, the atrium is a ceremonial room. In it, the Roman nobles kept, according to the right granted to them, portraits of their ancestors.

The phenomenon that we can observe throughout Roman architecture, namely the significantly more secular nature of the latter compared to Hellenic architecture, where religious buildings occupy a primary position, is also reflected in the era we are considering. Back at the end of the 4th century. censor Appius Claudius the famous high road is being built ( Via Appia), water pipelines are being built ( Aqua Appia), bridges, etc.

Via Appia

It is extremely difficult to establish where the art of vaulting, long known in the East, came to Rome from: did it penetrate directly from the Hellenistic world or became known in Rome thanks to the Etruscans? The oldest vaults known to us in Etruria date back to the 4th century. BC e.

One of the examples of such Etruscan buildings is dating back to the 3rd century. richly decorated Gate of Perugia (Porta Marzia), covered with a semicircular vault made of a large number of wedge-shaped blocks.

Cloaca Maxima(an underground channel that served to drain water from the area of ​​the marshy forum), built around 184 BC. e. (?), was covered with a vault of wedge-shaped stones.

A striking example of bridge construction from the era of the republic is a large bridge built in 110, which had several spans, the arches of which were made of wedge-shaped blocks.

Republic era. III – II century BC

From the 3rd century. a turning point begins in the cultural life of Rome. Rome gradually begins to join the orbit of Hellenistic culture. In the second half of the 3rd century. Livy Andronicus translates the Odyssey into Latin and lays the foundation for Latin tragedy and comedy, which he created according to Hellenic models. At the same time, the activities of Naevius and, somewhat later, Ennius and Plautus took place, who created Roman national literature, using the artistic heritage of Hellas in the widest possible way.

Similar phenomena apparently occurred in the architecture of this time. In any case, dating back to the 3rd century. BC e. found in the tomb of the Scipios Via Appia a large sarcophagus made of gray cape, on which is written a long epitaph to L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, is decorated with purely Hellenic architectural ornaments. Above the profiled base is a wide, smooth field, similar to a Dorian architrave; above is a Dorian triglyph frieze in which the metopes are decorated with rosettes; the cornice rising under the frieze is decorated with an Ionian denticle. We have already encountered this kind of combination of elements of the Dorian and Ionian orders in the architecture of Southern Italy of the Hellenistic period: in the entablature of a temple of the 3rd -2nd centuries. V Poseidonia (Paestume).

During the 2nd century. A number of structures similar in type to those of Hellenistic cities appeared in Rome. Around 159, the censor Scipio surrounds Nasica Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus colonnades; special market premises were built that served for trade and legal proceedings, basilicas (about 185 - Basilica Portia, in 179 - Basilica Aemilia).

With the beginning of the second half of the 2nd century. BC e. related activities Hermogenes of Salamis, apparently, who was the first to use marble in the construction of temples in Rome Jupiter Stator And Juno Regina.

From the same time we have evidence from Polybius about the plan that the Roman troops always strictly and unswervingly adhered to when setting up camp. Due to lack of space, we cannot give a detailed description of it and will limit ourselves to only pointing out that the entire planning system was built along straight lines intersecting at right angles. Wide straight streets, arranged in a uniform network, divided the camp into regular sections, each of which was occupied by a special detachment. In general, the layout of the Roman camp is very similar to the layout of a Hellenistic city (cf. Priene or Alexandria). It should be noted, however, that we encounter the same “correct” city layout quite early in Etruria, for example in the 5th century city located near Marzabotto, near Bologna.

By the 2nd century and the very beginning of the 1st century. BC e. These include tuff monuments from the next building period of Pompeii, on which the Hellenization of the Italic house can be clearly traced. An example of the latter is one of the large and complex houses, usually called Casa del Fauno. It has two adjacent entrances, each of which leads to a separate atrium. One of these atria is of the old (Tusculan) type with a beam ceiling resting on the walls, the other is of a new type (tetrastyle), in which the ceiling, in addition to the walls, rests on four more columns standing near the corners of the impluvium.

Both atria are surrounded on all sides by small rooms. Behind the atria, in the next part of the house, there was a large open rectangular peristyle framed by small rooms. The edges of the roof of this peristyle were supported by 28 (7x9) columns of the Ionian order, bearing a Dorian entablature; finally, behind this peristyle there was a second peristyle, large in size, framed by a two-tier colonnade (13x11 columns). The lower columns were of the Dorian order, the upper ones were of the Ionian order. A garden was placed in the second peristyle.

The walls of the house were covered with plaster and decorated with paintings of the so-called first Pompeian style. This style is usually called inlay due to the fact that it imitates wall cladding with multi-colored types of marble.

In the II century. Greece became a Roman province. This opened up the widest opportunities for the penetration of Hellenic culture into Rome. Countless amounts of artistic treasures were taken away by the winners as trophies. Many educated Greeks, usually as slaves, arrived in Rome.

Temples of the 2nd century clearly indicate a gradually increasing Hellenization. Built at the beginning of the 2nd century. small temple in Gabiah, about 24 m long and about 18 m wide, still has a blank rear wall characteristic of Italian temples; the elongated cella is framed on three sides by columns, the number of which is six on the facade and seven on the sides; but the depth of the front portico is already noticeably reduced. The columns of the temple were preserved only in the lower parts, and, judging by the flutes of the trunks and the profiling of the bases, they could be of the Ionian or Corinthian order.

The one built in the 2nd century is much more Hellenized. Temple of Apollo in Pompeii, which was a Corinthian peripterus, with six columns on the short sides and ten columns on the long sides. The small cella of the temple was moved far away from the front facade, but at the same time, some space was left between the rear wall of the cella and the rear facade. The temple stood on a high podium; from the front side a not very wide staircase led to it.

Age of Sulla (early 1st century BC)

From Sulla's era(beginning of the 1st century BC) several temples have reached us. IN Koryo The front part of the temple of the Dorian order, standing on a high podium, is well preserved. There were four columns on the front façade, and three on the sides; Only the front wall and the beginning of the side walls have survived from the cella.

Placed far from one another, Dorian columns are distinguished by exceptionally dry, highly elongated proportions. Columns stand on small bases. The trunks are fluted only in the middle and upper parts; in the lower parts they only have edges corresponding to the flutes. The capitals are very small: the echinae are not noticeable, the abaci are narrow.

Entablature Dorian order very different from classical buildings with its exceptionally light proportions. The height of the architrave is significantly less than the height of the frieze. For each intercolumnium there are four metopes, between which there are very narrow triglyphs. Due to the lightness of the architrave, the cornice appears heavy. The well-preserved pediment has rather steep slopes.

By the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. relate two temples in Tibur (Tivoli): pseudoperipterus and round. The first one, apparently dedicated to Sibylla, was built from travertine and tuff and covered with plaster. It stood on a low podium and was a small temple of the Ionian order, which had four columns along the front side. The deep portico of the temple, located behind these columns, was framed on both sides by antae extended one intercolumnium from the walls of the cella, ending in incomplete columns. The rest of the temple was occupied by a large single-nave oblong cella, the outer walls of which were decorated with semi-columns: there were four of them along the rear façade, and five on the sides (including antas).

In this pseudoperipter we can already observe one characteristic feature that would later become widespread in Roman architecture: the use of a column, which in Hellenic architecture performed purely constructive tasks, only as a decorative element that dismembers and enlivens the surface of the wall.

The second temple, apparently dedicated to Vesta, was also a small (diameter about 14 m) round building, standing on a podium and framed by eighteen columns of the Corinthian order. The light entablature consisted of a narrow architrave decorated with a frieze in relief, and a simple and austere cornice. The round cella of the temple had a wide door on the southwestern side, on both sides of which there were two narrow windows. A narrow staircase led to the door leading up to the podium. The type of the building is very close to the round Greek buildings of the 4th century, but is distinguished by the lighter proportions of the Corinthian colonnade. At the same time, in the round plan of this building one cannot fail to note the presence of a local tradition dating back to primitive round huts.

Travertine was used for facing the podium, columns, entablature, door and window frames; as for the remaining parts, that is, the main mass of the podium and the walls of the cella, the latter were built from small irregular fragments of tuff and travertine on lime mortar. This technique of building walls with mortar later became widespread in Roman architecture.

I century BC e. was the time of Romanization of Italy. The old local Italian cultures in this era were completely broken. But at the same time, the previously begun process of Rome’s perception of Hellenistic culture, which penetrated wider and deeper than it had been two centuries earlier, intensified more and more. Lucretius and Cicero transfer Greek philosophy to Roman soil, Varion - science, Catullus - poetry.

During this era, a number of buildings were erected in Rome, many of them constructed with exceptional luxury. In 78 BC. e. was built Tabulary(Senate archive), in which arched ceilings were combined with a colonnade - a technique that was widely used later and became one of the most characteristic features of Roman architecture. In all likelihood, a combination of these two elements took place in the appearance of the project begun in 54. Basilica Julia, standing on Forum Romanum. The layout of the buildings at the Forum was comparatively free.

By the 1st century BC e. refers to a small Ionian pseudoperipter - temple Mater Matuta (Fortuna Virilis) in Rome. This temple is similar in type to the pseudoperipterus in Tibur; it had a rather deep six-column portico, framed on the façade by four columns; there were no antes in the portico, and its sides were completely open. The rest of the temple was occupied by the cella, the walls of which were decorated on the outside with half-columns: there were four of them on the back wall, and five on the side walls.

The temple stood on a low podium. It was a curious combination of the structure of an old Italic temple with a deep portico and a cella set back with the forms of construction of the Ionian order. Its outlines were simple and austere, consistent with the style of Roman sculpture of that time (the school of Pacitel).

Age of Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD)

30 BC e. opens a new stage in Roman history: this is the time of the beginning of the principate. At the same time, in the same year, the last of the Hellenistic states that remained independent - Egypt - became part of the Roman state. During the era of Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD), intensive construction developed in Rome; Dozens of luxurious buildings are being restored and constructed, in which previously almost never used marble is widely used. Augustus is proud that he took Rome as clay and left it as marble.

A number of monuments built in this era are directly related to the emperor and are intended to glorify his activities.

In 2 BC. e. construction was completed Temple of Mars Ultor (Temple of Mars Ultor). This rather large temple of the Corinthian order had eight columns along the front facade. The front portico of the temple was very deep. The cella, pushed back, was framed on the sides by colonnades. On the rear side, the temple was enclosed by a blank wall, which formed a rather large apse opposite the entrance to the cella.

Temple of Mars was the main building Augusta Forum. It was framed on three sides by lush colonnades, and against the sides of the temple there were semicircular extensions behind them. The Hellenistic method of organizing the internal space of the square through a colonnade is carried out here with exceptional symmetry, which, as we will see later, is a characteristic feature of the layout of architectural ensembles of the Roman Empire.

An exceptionally clear idea of ​​the temple architecture of the Augustan era can be given by the church built in 4 AD. e. temple in Nimes, known as Maison Carree. This Corinthian pseudoperipter, standing on a high podium, has a deep ten-columned portico, with six columns along the front façade. The large cella of the temple is decorated with semi-columns on the outer sides. A light architrave crowns the colonnade, the frieze is covered with relief ornaments, and the cornice is carefully decorated.

The decorations on the cornice of the Temple of Concordia, built in 10 AD, are no less magnificent. e. in Rome and the frieze of the temple in Pyla.

In general, it can be noted that the temple in Nîmes, apparently like other buildings of the Augustan era, has a ceremonial decorated appearance, which sharply distinguishes it from the simple and austere temple of Mater Matuta. In exactly the same way can be compared Augustus statue (Prima Porta) with sculptures of the late Republic (for example, the Vatican statue of a Roman in a toga).

This desire to give an architectural monument a magnificent character was, apparently, the reason for the dominance in Roman architecture, starting from the era of Augustus, of the Corinthian order. This can also be related to the frequent use of the column as a purely decorative element.

Roman society of this time viewed art as an item of luxury and the most refined comfort; This understanding of art is fully consistent with the focus of exclusive attention in architecture on the decoration of a building, the desire to make it as ornate as possible, and the widest use of decorative, often hedonistic in content (statues of satyrs, Bacchus, Venus, etc.) sculpture in houses, villas, parks, etc.

This hedonism in art responds, just as it once took place in Greece, and hedonism in philosophy. Back in the 1st century. BC e. Lucretius wrote his poem De rerum natura, in which he outlined the teachings of Epicurus, which received wide recognition among a significant part of the top of Roman society.

At the same time, such structures as the temple in Nîmes, despite all their closeness to the Greek temple, are fundamentally different from it in the absence of a stepped pedestal, characteristic of the Hellenic peripterus, which gives the whole the “heroic proportions” that we spoke about above. The mythological worldview so characteristic of Hellenic culture was alien to the Romans even after they accepted Hellenic mythology and the religion of the Olympic pantheon.
The ordinary staircase leading to the temple in Nîmes, on the contrary, emphasizes the purely anthropic nature of the building, which fully corresponds to the teachings of Epicurus.

Also worthy of attention is the fundamentally different character of the ornaments that adorned Hellenic and Roman buildings. The conventional geometrized planar ornament of a Greek temple, even if it contains some motifs taken from the plant world, presents them in such a highly processed form that they are not fundamentally different from the linear elements of decoration (see the Parthenon ornaments). In Roman ornament, plant motifs fully retain living organic forms, which clearly indicates the more realistic nature of Roman decorative art (see the frieze of the temple in the Field and the ornaments of the altar of the World of Augustus). This more realistic character, fully consistent with the sober practicalism of the Romans, was expressed in statuary sculpture: the sculptural portrait occupies the same dominant position in Roman art as the typical statue of an athlete in Greek; Corresponding to this is the character of the Roman religion, where, in contrast to the transcendental animism characteristic of Greece, immanent animism persisted for a long time.

In 13-9 years. BC e. was built Altar of the Peace of Augustus (Ara Paris Augustae), which was a small rectangular building (11.6 × 10.6 m), surrounded by a high wall, completely covered with rich decoration; on the walls below there were wide belts of relief ornament, and at the top there was a relief zophorus (there were Corinthian pilasters in the corners). From the east and west the wall was interrupted by a wide door, to which a small staircase led. The altar itself was located in the center of the structure. The entire building was made of Luna marble.

The task of constructing the altar of the World of Augustus is close to that solved by the builders of the grandiose Pergamon altar; but the most cursory glance is enough to see how different the two monuments are. The external design of the Pergamon altar is still built according to the principle of peripterus, although the colonnade is placed on a high pedestal decorated with high reliefs. The Altar of Peace is bordered by a solid, richly decorated wall. This principle of emphasizing the wall, often combined not with a straight, but with a vaulted ceiling, is one of the most characteristic phenomena in Roman architecture. He found a vivid expression in the triumphal arches, a number of which were built in the era of Augustus.

Built in 8 BC, it has rather simple forms. e. single-span arch in Sousse. The large passage (8.75 m high and 5 m wide) is framed by a semicircular vault, emphasized by a triple fillet, and smooth walls, which are enlivened by partial Corinthian columns at the corners of the building and flat pilasters flanking the passage. The columns support a Corinthian entablature with a frieze decorated with reliefs. A small smooth attic rises above the cornice, continuing the main surface of the lower wall.

It was richly decorated triumphal arch near St. Remy, the upper part of which has not survived. It has an increased number of incomplete attached columns and relief decorations.

In the triumphal arch, in addition to the aforementioned accentuation of the wall and vaulted ceiling, characteristic of Roman architecture, another no less typical phenomenon can be noted: the relegation of the column and the entablature it supports, which played such an important constructive role in Hellenic architecture, to the level of purely decorative elements that should only dismember and enliven the surface of the wall.

Colonnade galleries, so characteristic of Hellenistic architecture, were also built in the era of Augustus. We have already mentioned one of them, framing the temple of Mars Ultor. The one erected in the 2nd century was especially impressive in size. BC e. and the “portico of Octavia”, rebuilt under Augustus; it contained up to three hundred columns of the Corinthian order and a large number of works of sculpture and painting.
In 11 BC. e. was built, which has come down to us in a badly damaged state, made of travertine Theater of Marcellus. Unlike Greek theaters, which, in essence, represent only an adaptation for an auditorium of a hillside convenient for this purpose, in front of which corresponding stage buildings were erected, the Roman theater is an architectural monument of the usual type, inside which there are stage structures and gradually rising places for spectators.

The Theater of Marcellus, very monumental in form, had an external appearance characteristic of Roman civil buildings: rhythmically repeating, powerful pillars arranged in two tiers interspersed with high semicircular arches of the vaults. The pillars and the parts of the walls located above them were decorated with columns that had a purely decorative purpose, supporting an entablature: in the first tier - of the Dorian order (with a cornice decorated with denticles) and in the second - of the Ionian order.
Of undoubted interest are the funerary monuments of the Augustan era, characterized by a wide variety of forms. Apparently, a peculiar echo of the inclusion of Egypt into the Roman state and the associated introduction of artistic values ​​(cf., for example, the third Pompeian style) is the tombstone of Cestius, who died in 12 BC. e. It has the shape of a tetrahedral rather high pyramid. The monument was built of brick and faced with marble.

Erected in the same era, the tombstone of the bread supplier M. Virgil Eurysaces was a very unique structure: in the lower part of the building there were massive square and round pillars that supported the high walls of the building. The surface of these walls was enlivened by special circles, indicating the throats of querels or the crowns of pithoi for supplies; above there was a narrow relief frieze and cornice. In this monument, very original in form, one cannot fail to note the peculiar manifestation of those aspirations towards realism in Roman architecture, which we have already discussed.

In the gravestone Yuliev monument in St. Remy all the characteristic features of the architecture of the Augustan era are concentrated. On a square stepped pedestal rises a plinth lined with reliefs; on it stands a tetrapylon - a gate that opens in all four directions. Corinthian columns supporting the entablature are placed at the corners of the tetrapylon; finally, the entire building is crowned with a rotunda of the Corinthian order.

Located on Via Appia Mausoleum of Caecilia Metella (Mausoleo di Cecilia Metella) is a massive, tower-like, cylindrical structure. The undivided smooth walls of this monument gave the impression of irresistible power. In the mausoleum of Augustus and his family we find a similar motif of a large (88 m in diameter), massive, tower-like structure made of marble, which here serves as the crepida of a tree-lined mound.
Along with the magnificent mausoleums that served as the graves of the emperor and the social elite, more modest underground crypts-columbariums have come down to us, which were rectangular rooms, the walls of which were entirely covered with small niches where urns with the ashes of the dead were placed.

Of the residential buildings of this time, let us mention Livia's house on the Palatine, decorated with paintings corresponding to the second Pompeian style (architectural), used in the era of the late Republic and the beginning of the Principate. A characteristic feature of this style is the revitalization of the wall surface by applying architectural details (columns, pilasters, etc.). The main surface of the wall imitates the cladding; In addition, individual paintings are arranged together.

Along with the second style, in the Augustan era, the third Pompeian style was also used when painting houses. It is distinguished by the predominance of ornament, in the spirit of which the architectural elements of the painting are processed; This style is also characterized by an abundance of Egyptian motifs.

Finally, it should be noted that in the era of Augustus a number of buildings for purely utilitarian purposes were built. An example would be the grandiose Aqueduct of Agrippa near Nîmes(known as Pont du Gard), whose length reaches 269 m.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty (15 - 68 AD)

From the architecture of the time of Augustus' closest successors (the Julio-Claudian dynasty), few monuments have reached us. Let's look at the most important of them.

In 21 AD e. was dedicated Tiberius(possibly built earlier) Arc de Triomphe in Orange. Quite significant in size (its height is 18 m, width 19.5), it has three spans, of which the middle one is larger than the side ones. The arch is decorated with attached incomplete Corinthian columns, four on each side, a simple and austere entablature, complex profiling of architectural parts and numerous relief decorations.

era Claudia(41-54) was marked mainly by grandiose buildings of a utilitarian order, such as the great harbor in Ostia, unfinished drainage tunnel at 5540 m long, led to Fuqing Lake, finally Aqua Claudia- the largest of the aqueducts in the city of Rome.

“Golden House” of Emperor Nero, preserved premises

The most famous of the buildings Nero(54-68) - built after the great fire of 64 by architects North And Celer « Golden House» ( Domus_Aurea). This huge residence, covering an area of ​​about 50 hectares, included a large palace built with exceptional luxury, a park, an artificially dug pond; The ensemble included a colossal (35 m in height) bronze statue of the emperor by Zenodora.

Domus_Aurea. Golden House of Emperor Nero. Preserved part available for visits / Column of Nero

We can judge the magnificent decoration of the Golden House only from the insignificant remains of the minor parts of Nero’s residence, as well as, to a certain extent, from the richest Pompeian houses of the same time. This is the era when the fourth style dominates in Pompeii, the characteristic features of which are the abundance of architectural elements of an absolutely fantastic, bizarre nature and a bright, brilliant color.

The Flavian era (69-96) The era of Trajan (98-117) - Hadrian (117-138)

In the era Trajan(98-117) the construction of structures of a purely utilitarian nature - roads, bridges, water pipelines, harbors, etc., was particularly active. At the same time, attention was paid to the residential areas of the city. Frequent collapses of large buildings led to an order prohibiting the construction of multi-story buildings more than 20 m in height.

In 107-113 in Rome built by the architect Apollodorus from Damascus grand Trajan's forum, considered in ancient times one of the main attractions of the capital. It is slightly smaller in area than all the other Roman forums combined.

Trajan's Forum, like the forums of other emperors, had a symmetrical layout of buildings. A large triumphal arch served as the entrance to a square courtyard (the sides of which reached 126 m). In the center of the courtyard was an equestrian statue of Trajan; on the sides it was framed by colonnades, behind which there were semicircular exedra. Along the side of the courtyard farthest from the entrance stood a large five-nave Basilica Ulpia, which had a gilded bronze roof. Behind the basilica there was a small square, flanked on the sides by two small library buildings. In the center of this square stood the tall column of Trajan. Finally, the entire structure was closed by the temple of Trajan, framed by colonnades, erected by his successor Hadrian. From these numerous structures to the present time, with the exception of Trajan's Columns, only pitiful remnants have survived.

Delivered in 113-114. Trajan's Column was a very unique commemorative monument, which also served as the emperor's burial crypt. On a high square pedestal decorated with reliefs stood a grandiose column equipped with a massive base and a light Dorian capital; its trunk was covered with a spirally curved relief belt, representing “Trajan’s wars with the Dacians.” Above the capital is a high round pedestal on which a statue of Trajan once stood.

Inside the column was a spiral staircase that led up to a small platform located above the capital and around the pedestal of the statue.

Intensive construction took place during the era of Trajan and in the provinces. We will limit ourselves to mentioning what arose at the beginning of the 2nd century. African city Timgade, laid out according to a plan reminiscent of Roman camps. The city was richly decorated with large colonnades. One of the best preserved monuments is the three-span triumphal arch; the question of dating it to the era of Trajan or a later time does not yet seem to be resolved.

Burned down in 110 Pantheon, lined up Agrippa in 27 BC e. Its restoration was entrusted Apollodorus of Damascus, which during 115-125. rebuilt the building. Constructed mainly from brick and mortar, the Pantheon has reached us in very good condition, only slightly distorted by later alterations.

The temple was a grandiose, round building, covered with a dome and equipped with a large portico. The division of the interior of the temple is strictly symmetrical. The lower floor of the walls is divided into eight parts by alternately located four rectangular and three semicircular niches. Opposite the middle semicircular niche there is a slot of the entrance arch similar in shape to it.

Each of the niches was once separated from the central space by two large columns of the Corinthian order, supporting a rather simple entablature with a smooth frieze; Only in the niche located opposite the exit are these columns greatly moved apart and frame it from the sides, and the entablature runs along the concave line of the wall.

The wide smooth walls between the niches, framed by Corinthian pilasters, were enlivened by small aedicules placed in front of them. The second tier lying above the entablature was dissected by powerful semicircular arches located above the niches; between them there was a wide expanse of wall. Horizontal profiling separated the second tier from the grandiose hemispherical dome, the surface of which in the lower and middle parts was enlivened by five rows of large cassettes. The upper part of the dome, devoid of cassettes, was framed by a large round window (9 m in diameter), which boldly completed the building.

The diameter of the interior of the Pantheon was 43.5 m, and the height was 42.7 m. The complex division of the inner side of the walls and the dome of the Pantheon, enhanced by the richness and variety of interior decoration, is sharply contrasted by the exceptional simplicity of the external design of the building.

It is a grandiose cylindrical vestibule, above which rises the dome of the temple. The surface of the vestibule walls is divided into three tiers by horizontal strands, the first and second strictly corresponding to the corresponding internal divisions of the building. The third floor is located at the level of the two lower rows of dome cassettes. The purpose of the wall of this tier is to help counteract the enormous thrust force of the dome. The third floor covers the lower part of the dome, due to which the latter gives the impression of being flat. The dome was covered with a gilded roof that has not survived to this day.

The entrance to the Pantheon leads through a large, deep portico, which was reconstructed during the 2nd century. In its current form, it has eight columns of the Corinthian order along the façade topped with a high pediment (the remains of the foundation indicate that there were once ten of them). The colonnade of the facade is followed by four rows of columns - two in each, dividing the portico into three longitudinal compartments. The entrance to the cella is flanked by two wall projections forming niches; these parts of the building are decorated with Corinthian pilasters.

Our description of the Pantheon clearly indicates that the focus of the architect’s attention was not on the external design of the building, since the outside of the building is given in the simplest, so to speak, laconic forms: it is a smooth wall, in the cutting of which the architect is limited to horizontal division, corresponding to the division of the internal parts of the building.

The main problem that was put forward and resolved in the Pantheon is the problem of organizing the internal space. This space was given strictly centric and, moreover, was limited for the viewer, located in the center of the building, not by straight walls extending into the distance and a ceiling covered with beams, as was the case in the Greek temple, but by the soft curved line of the ring of walls and the hemisphere of the dome.

This special spatiality of the Pantheon, which is the result of a rounded frame, is fully consistent with the illumination of the building, not the side (through the door) usual in ancient architecture, but the top - through a round window located at the zenith of the dome. Such lighting provided a soft, diffused light that did not reveal, but smoothed out contrasts, thus helping to ensure that the complex architectural decoration of the walls and ceiling produced a mainly purely decorative impression.

Villa Adriana in Tibur

In the Pantheon building, especially from the outside, there is a clear assertion of the wall as the main architectural element. This emphasis on the wall represents one of the manifestations of the desire for realism in Roman architecture, which we have already discussed several times. If in the altar of the World of Augustus the wall appeared in a disguised form, completely covered with relief decorations, then in the Pantheon it is presented in all its purity and spontaneity.

The smooth, impenetrable surface of the wall meets the practical and artistic task of isolating the building from the surrounding space to an incomparably greater extent than the (even structurally necessary) colonnades of the Hellenic peripterus, which makes the forms of Roman architecture incomparably more realistic than the forms of Hellenic architecture.

The purpose of the temple to serve as a place of worship not for one deity, but for the entire collection of gods is worthy of attention. This phenomenon is in connection with the gradual inclusion into the orbit of the Roman religion of all the main cults that existed on the vast territory of the empire, and corresponds to the philosophy of this era. At this time, the teachings of the Stoics, who preached cosmopolitanism and put forward the position that all people constitute a single organism, were widely spread.
In 123-126. successor of Trajan Adrian(117-138) a grandiose villa in Tibur (Tivoli), which was a complex complex of buildings. Separate parts of the villa were supposed to perpetuate Hadrian's memories of his travels in Greece and the East, reproducing the Stoa poikile, the Academy, the Lyceum, Canopus, and the Tempean Valley. This desire to repeat some famous structures of ancient architecture fully corresponds to the classicist trends that dominated the art of the period under review, which at the same time had a touch of romance.

During the era of Hadrian, extensive restoration work was carried out on Forum Romanum. In 135, a large Temple of Venus and Roma. Framed by porticoes, the temple stood on a platform 145 m long and 100 m wide. The podium usual for Roman temples was missing; instead, the temple was surrounded on all sides by steps.

The temple was a peripterus of the Corinthian order, with ten columns on the front sides and twenty columns on the long sides. The interior of the temple was divided by transverse walls into two cells. In front of each of them there was a four-column portico (pronaos) in anta. The floor in the cellae was higher than in the porticoes. In the middle of the back wall of each cella there was a large semicircular niche; they were separated from one another by a common wall. In one of these niches there was a statue of Roma, in the other - of Venus. The long walls of the cella were decorated with colonnades and niches. Both cellas, as well as the porticoes in front of them, were covered with vaults, which was in a certain contradiction with the gable roof of the temple.

The walls of the temple were built of brick; Marble was widely used for cladding; the decoration was very luxurious.

From the above it is clear that the Temple of Venus and Roma is a very pretentious monument of a kind of Greco-Roman eclecticism, marking those classicist aspirations of the era, which we have already discussed above. This temple was as far from the works of Hellenic architecture, the era of the latter’s heyday, as the statues of Hadrian’s favorite, the young Bithynian Antinous, from the sculptures of the classical period representing athletes.

Built in 132-139, it is relatively well preserved: Moles(mausoleum) Adriana, currently known as Castello St. Angelo. This grandiose, once richly decorated monument had a square plinth on which stood a tower-shaped vestibule topped with a rotunda.

A number of outstanding architectural monuments were built in the era of Hadrian and in the Roman provinces.

Ends in Athens Temple of Olympian Zeus, not completed by Antiochus Epiphanes and then subjected to destruction. A number of new buildings are being built around this building, forming “ Adriana city”, which was connected to the “old” city by large gates (18 m high and 13.5 m wide), made of Pentelicon marble.

In the lower tier, which was a solid wall framed on the sides by Corinthian pilasters, a large passage was cut. The passage was flanked by pilasters, also of the Corinthian order, but of smaller sizes, above which there was a profiled fillet along the arch. Between the large and small pilasters, Corinthian columns stood on special pedestals, supporting the projections of the entablature that crowned the lower floor of the gate.

The very light through upper tier consisted of Corinthian columns and pillars supporting an entablature, the middle part of which was crowned with a pediment. In this monument we again find the attempt we have already noted to give a peculiar combination of Greek and Roman elements in exquisitely refined forms.

The surviving parts are distinguished by a much more monumental character. Hadrian's Library in Athens. A row of round Corinthian columns stretching along a solid wall reached us. A very unique entablature crowns the wall and forms small projections above the columns, corresponding in shape to the capitals. We have already seen this technique of reviving a wall earlier on the Nerva forum.

Of Adrian's other buildings, we note the grandiose, very unique in plan temple in Cyzicus. This temple was a peripterus with six columns on the front and fifteen on the long sides. A small cella, which had two doors facing the front and rear facades, was the only interior room of the temple. The large free space between the cella and both facades was filled with columns, the total number of rows of which was five on the front side and three on the back side.

Age of the Antonines (138 - 192)

Construction activity under Hadrian's successors Antonines(138-192) is much paler than in the first decades of the 2nd century. This does not apply to buildings that have a purely utilitarian purpose, the construction of which is proceeding very intensively, but from this era almost no monuments have reached us that would have been of great importance in the development of the style of Roman architecture.

At Antonina Pie(138-161) on Roman Forum was built Temple of Faustina, decorated with a colonnade. The front part of this temple has been preserved. The portico was framed by large columns of the Corinthian order, made of light green marble; there were six of them on the façade, and three on the sides. The light entablature was decorated with a narrow relief frieze.

Erected in Rome Column of Marcus Aurelius(161-180) did not represent anything new in architectural terms, being basically a repetition of Trajan's Column.

During the Antonine era in Greece, a number of buildings were built by the wealthy orator Herodes Atticus; note Odeon(indoor theater) in Athens and Exedru in Olympia; the latter was a semicircular building, framed on the sides by wings, with a semi-dome ceiling. This building was sharply disharmonious with the entire ensemble in Altis.

The grandiose building, begun under Antoninus Pius, dates back to the Antonine era. Acropolis complex of Heliopolis (Baalbek). It reached a length of almost 300 m and consisted of a colossal temple and a number of rooms preceding access to it, located strictly symmetrically.

A wide staircase led to the twelve-column portico of the propylaea, very wide on the facade, but shallow; from there three doors led into a hexagonal courtyard framed by colonnades, on the opposite side of which there were also three doors into the next large square courtyard, framed on three sides by colonnades. The back side of the courtyard was closed by a large temple.

It was a colossal peripterus, with ten columns on the front and nineteen on the long sides. Columns up to 19 m high stood on large bases; smooth trunks were crowned with magnificent Corinthian capitals. The light Corinthian entablature was richly ornamented with decorations distinguished, like the capitals of the columns, by a restless dynamic character.

South of the large temple was second peripter, significantly smaller in size; there were eight columns on the short sides of this temple and fifteen on the long sides. The height of the columns was 16 m. The temple stood on a high podium; on the east side a staircase led into it, behind which there was a deep portico. Pronaos was surrounded by antes; a richly ornamented door led from it to the cella. In the depths of the cella there was a wide staircase along which they ascended to the aditon.

The inner sides of the side walls of the cella were enlivened by Corinthian columns placed against them. The columns stood on special plinths and had small bases, fluted trunks and very magnificent capitals. Along the wall, above the columns, ran the same stepped entablature as in the Forum of Nerva. In the spaces between the columns there were niches and tabernacles arranged in two tiers, which gave the walls a resemblance to the facade of the stage of Roman theaters.

Overly loaded with heavy, luxurious decorations, full of restless dynamics, the grandiose buildings of Heliopolis have a solemn, somewhat pompous character.

It is interesting to compare these phenomena in architecture with the sculptural portrait of the Antonine era; the contrasting juxtaposition of form gives it a restless character, which is enhanced by the play of chiaroscuro, which sometimes creates purely decorative effects.

Age of the North (193 - 217)

At Septimius Severa(193-211) large restoration work was carried out in Rome. Of the newly built structures, the most prominent place was occupied by the palace, the entrance to which was decorated with a grandiose three-tiered curtain called Septizodium(or Septizonium), built in 203. It was a complex combination of massive walls, arches and columns and, in addition, was richly decorated with sculpture; In addition, fountains were introduced into the composition.

The large (23 m in height) three-span building was also richly decorated. arch, erected in honor Septimia Severa and his sons Geths And Caracallas. The spans of the arch were framed by Corinthian fluted pilasters and Corinthian columns, standing on special pedestals and supporting the projections of the entablature. The pedestals of the columns were decorated with reliefs; on the walls, between the columns, the reliefs that completely covered them were arranged in several rows. Contrasting with this extreme congestion of decoration in the lower middle parts of the building was the smooth surface of the attic, covered with a long inscription.

Caracalla(211-217) completed the baths begun by his father. This grandiose, well-equipped, luxuriously decorated building was located in a large (350 m long) almost square park, framed on all sides by buildings. The Baths of Caracalla represented a complex complex of various rooms, strictly symmetrically located and giving a combination of volumes and spaces organized in various ways.

Quite significant remains of walls, vaults and pillars have been preserved from the baths. As for the architectural decorations related to the baths, the use of a Corinthian capital with a sculptural image of Hercules built into it is worthy of mention.

During the era of the North, there was intensive construction activity in North Africa, as a result of which a number of camp cities appeared. Among them, especially interesting Tebessa, where at the beginning of the 3rd century. a small (9 m wide, 14.7 m long) temple of the Corinthian order was built.

The temple had a rather deep six-column portico, with four columns standing along the façade; The outside walls of the cella are decorated with pilasters. The magnificent capitals of the columns and pilasters are matched by an abundance of relief decorations on the entablature, completely covering not only the frieze, but also the architrave; These decorations do not run in a continuous ribbon and are separated according to the columns by special caesuras.

We will also point out other buildings in Tebessa triumphal arch, erected in 214 honor of Caracalla. This arch is single-span, but opens with gates not in two, but in four directions (tetrapiles).

Final stage (270 - 337)

The era that followed the Severan dynasty was extremely turbulent and full of military conflicts. It is characteristic that at this time a number of defensive structures were built. Emperor Aurelius(270-275) surrounds Rome with a fortress wall. Close to her in time Verona city gate(known as Porta dei Borsari) and Trier(Porta Nigra).

Antique Gate of Verona - Porta Borsari

In the 3rd century. blooms magnificently Palmyra, laid out according to a pre-drawn plan and richly decorated with grandiose colonnades; Decumanus(the main street) of this city formed a grand avenue 1135 m long, on both sides of which stood three hundred and seventy-five columns supporting a rather heavy entablature. The height of the columns was 17 m. On their smooth trunks, slightly above the middle, strongly protruding consoles were placed. Behind the colonnades there were houses, warehouses, shops and other buildings. The colonnades ended with a three-span triumphal arch, framed by pilasters and richly decorated with ornaments.

era Diocletian(284-305) and his immediate successors represents the final stage in the development of ancient art in general and architecture in particular.

Diocletian's main building in Rome was grandiose baths, built in 302-305. According to the plan, they were close to the Baths of Caracalla, but accommodated twice as many visitors (over 3,000 people). Quite significant parts of Diocletian's baths have survived to this day. Tepidarium(warm bath) of these thermal baths, which currently serves as a church ( S. Maria degli Angeli), reached us in very good condition. This room is covered with very bold cross vaults.

Another architectural monument associated with the name of Diocletian is his palace in Salona (Spalato). It differs sharply from the residences of the Roman emperors of the 1st - 2nd centuries. and fully meets the new conditions of the Roman Empire, which is turning into an eastern despotism.

The palace occupies a vast rectangular space (more than 37,000 m2), fortified with walls and towers. The layout of the premises was carried out according to the principle of a military camp. Symmetry reigned everywhere. Two wide streets divided the camp-palace into four equal parts. In one of these rectangular parts there was a large octagonal building, near which stood colonnades, very characteristic of late ancient architecture, supporting a series of arches.

Diocletian's successor Maxentius(206-212), builds a basilica in Rome, completed, perhaps, after his death. This grandiose building was divided into three naves, and the middle nave was much wider and higher than the side ones (its width was 25 m, height 35 m). The middle nave was covered with three cross vaults, and each side nave with three barrel vaults.

In this basilica we see a focus on the organization of vast, symmetrically arranged internal spaces. Architectural forms are built through walls, pillars and vaults, the smooth surfaces of which play a dominant role everywhere. The use of a column, even if it is a structural part, still has a mainly decorative purpose.

In conclusion, let us mention triumphal arch of Constantine(323-337), located in Rome. In architectural forms, it is very close to the arch of Septimius Severus, but even more than the latter, it is loaded with sculptural decorations, which not only fill the lower and middle parts of the arch, but also penetrate to the top in the form of statues standing on the ledges of the entablature, under the columns, and reliefs between them. The creative impotence of the era is reflected in the fact that a significant part of the sculptures decorating the arch were taken from earlier monuments.

September 29, 2018

Rome is one of the oldest cities in the world and many centuries ago it was the largest center of social and political life. Religion occupied a special place in the life of the ancient Romans. The first temples dedicated to the pagan Gods began to be built back in the royal period, around the 6th century BC. These most ancient temples of Rome have survived to this day - their ruins can still be seen in Rome today. Let's get to know them.

The ruins of the ancient temple of Vesta, dedicated to the Roman goddess of the family hearth, are located in the oldest part of the Eternal City, in the Roman Forum. Presumably the temple appeared in the 6th-5th centuries BC. The structure, round in plan, was surrounded on the outside by a colonnade. The Sacred Fire was constantly burning in the temple, which was maintained by the priestesses of the goddess Vesta - the Vestals, and inside there was a cache that kept sacred relics.

Contemporaries can see only three fifteen-meter columns, an altar, and also the source of Juturna, the water of which was considered healing.

One of the most ancient religious buildings of Ancient Rome, which was lucky enough to survive to this day, is the Temple of Saturn. Its ruins can be seen in the Roman Forum. Saturn, the God of earth and fertility, was especially revered by the Romans in ancient times; temples were erected to him and new cities were named after him. According to legend, in ancient times Italy was called the Land of Saturn.

The Temple of Saturn was built at the foot of the Capitoline Hill in the second half of the 5th century BC. During its history, the building burned down during fires more than once, but it was restored. Today, only a few columns of the portico and part of the foundation have survived. On the frieze you can see the inscription in Latin:

SENATUS POPULUSQUE ROMANUS INCENDIO CONSUMPTUM RESTITUIT

Which in translation sounds like: “ The Senate and people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire».

During the Republican period, the treasury was located under the temple, where not only the Roman treasury was kept, but also important state documents.

The Temple of Portuna is one of the few ancient buildings that has managed to survive to this day. In ancient Roman mythology, Portunus was considered the god of doors, keys and livestock, the guardian of entrances and exits. The temple is located in the Forum Boar. In Republican times, there was a small port and market here, where there was a lively trade in livestock.

The first temple of Portunus appeared in the 3rd century BC, but the structure that can be seen today dates back to the 1st century BC. From the previous structure, only part of the foundation was preserved, found during excavations.

The temple is the oldest surviving marble structure in Rome. It was built around 120 BC. in the Forum Boar, near the Temple of Portunus. Dedicated to the hero of ancient Greek mythology, the deified Hercules, whose cult spread through the Greek colonists to Italy.

The legendary ancient Roman commander and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar was the second in history, after the founder of Rome Romulus, to be deified by a Roman. Just two years after Caesar's brutal assassination, starting in 42 B.C. The construction of a temple in his honor began. Unfortunately, only a small part of it has survived to this day, but the ruins that can be seen today in its place give a good idea of ​​how impressive in size this building was more than two thousand years ago.

Three tall columns and part of the podium are all that have survived from the temple of Venus the Progenitor in the Forum of Caesar. It was built back in 46 BC. at the direction of the great Julius Caesar in gratitude to Venus, fertility, beauty and love, for help in the victory over Pompey. The cult of Venus had special significance in the life of the ancient Romans, who considered her their patroness.

The surviving ruins of the temple are located in the Fori Imperiali, or Fori imperiali, in the center of the Forum Augustus, commissioned by the first Roman emperor in 2 AD. It was a majestic structure, richly decorated with white marble, sculptures of kings and great Roman generals, sacred statues of gods and mythological figures.

In 79 AD, a temple was erected in the Roman Forum in honor of the two deified Flavian emperors - Vespasian and his son Titus. From the majestic temple, only a few columns remained, as well as some bas-reliefs, which today are kept in museums.

The temple of all the gods - the Pantheon - is located in the Rotunda Square, or Piazza della Rotonda, in the historical center of Rome. This structure was built by order of Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. e. To this day it remains a functioning temple. The Pantheon is a unique example of ancient Roman architecture; its design features testify to great achievements in the field of ancient engineering.

Many outstanding personalities of the past are buried in the Pantheon, including the Italian kings Umberto I and Vittorio Emanuele II, Queen Margaret of Savoy, as well as famous painters and architects of the Renaissance Raphael Santi, Baldassare Peruzzi and others.

According to historians, the most majestic religious structure of Ancient Rome was a temple erected in honor of the goddesses Venus and Roma, patroness of the Eternal City. It was consecrated in 135 AD. e., during the reign of Hadrian. The architect of this monumental structure was the emperor himself.

The ruins that can be seen today near the Colosseum give an idea of ​​the size of the ancient structure. The pedestal on which the temple was erected is 145 meters long and 100 meters wide.

Modern Rome is not just a city with a long, centuries-old history, it is a real open-air museum, the exhibits of which surprisingly find a place among modern buildings. One such example is the Temple of Hadrian, located in Stone Square (Piazza di Pietra). Part of the ancient Roman structure turned out to be built into a 17th-century building designed by Carlo Fontana.

The temple to the glory of the deified Emperor Hadrian was erected by his adopted son and successor Antoninus Pius in 141-145 AD.

The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina is one of the few well-preserved pre-Christian temples in the Forum. By decree of Emperor Antoninus Pius, who was essentially a deeply religious man, a temple was erected in the Roman Forum around the middle of the 2nd century in honor of his late wife Faustina. When the emperor died, an eagle was released into the sky at the farewell ceremony, symbolizing the deification of Antonin. On the frieze of the portico you can see the Latin inscription:

DIVO ANTONINO ET DIVAE FAUSTINAE EX S(enatus) C(onsulto)

which translated from Latin sounds like: “ Divine Antoninus and Divine Faustina by decision of the Senate».

One of the largest buildings located in the Roman Forum is the basilica dedicated to the emperors Maxentius and Constantine. The height of the vaults of the basilica, built in 312, was 39 meters, and the area of ​​just one nave exceeded four thousand square meters.

The most ancient temples of Rome that have survived to this day

The apogee of the development of the ancient world was the Roman Empire, whose heyday occurred in the first centuries of our era. The invasion of the barbarians put an end to the civilization of the ancient Romans, which had lost the ability to adequately respond to external challenges and was mired in internal strife. And along with the barbarians, came the destruction to which many of the finest examples of Roman architecture were subjected. But, nevertheless, by chance, some of them, albeit partially, have survived to this day, giving everyone the opportunity to learn about the features of the Roman architectural tradition.

The Romans borrowed many aspects of culture from the Greeks, modifying them in their own, more practical way. That is why the architectural ensemble in a large Roman city was a mixture of the Greek agora and traditional forms of folk housing. The picture was completed by majestic religious and public buildings - forums, baths, temples, amphitheaters. Triumphal arches recalled moments of greatness and military success of the Roman legions. And in the suburbs there were luxurious villas with vineyards, olive groves, wheat fields and other farmsteads, irrigated using complex engineering structures - aqueducts. Bridges over rivers and magnificent roads connecting the entire empire are also among the achievements of ancient Roman builders.

Aqueduct of Pont du Gard

This type of house is known as atrium-peristyle.

Trajan's Forum, general view, reconstruction

The squares were predominantly rectangular in shape; their composition was dominated by the temple, towering above other buildings. The temples were also rectangular with attached porticoes - a similar design is traditional for Rome and dates back to the Etruscan-Archaic period. The deep-axial structure can be traced here, and the entrance was distinguished by a rich portico, which had features of the Corinthian, Composite or Ionic order, although the latter was rarely used in Roman architecture and was characteristic of the architecture of Ancient Greece.

The most complex and majestic forum is considered to be built by the Emperor Trajan, built under the leadership of the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in the period from 112 to 117 AD. e. Its scale and decoration have no analogues. The main motif of the ensemble is marble colonnades and porticos of various, sometimes very large dimensions, the largest of which is the Trajan Memorial Column, located between two symmetrical library buildings in the middle of a small internal square. Its height is 38 meters, and the marble trunk is covered with a spiral bas-relief with more than 2.5 thousand figures - all this was intended to perpetuate the military successes of Trajan.

Modern view of Trajan's form

Arched and vaulted forms were also widely used in the construction of bridges and aqueducts. The latter were the basis of the city water supply, and the Romans, as you know, were great fans of baths. Stone and hydraulic mortar were used in their construction. Thus, the Garda aqueduct bridge has a length of 275 meters and a height of 49 meters. The largest arch had a span of 24 meters. A grandiose building for its time. Simplicity of forms, harmony of relationships, clarity of tectonics, expressive texture and amazing scale - the constructive elements of the composition in their totality gave rise to amazing monumental and exquisite beauty. It is worth noting that it was arched-vaulted concrete structures that underpin the most grandiose public buildings of imperial Rome.

Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome

The most famous and grandiose Roman theater is without a doubt the Colosseum, built in the 1st century AD. The architects of that time worked hard to build this giant to perfection. The dimensions of this elliptical structure are 156 by 188 meters along the axes and almost 50 meters in height. Capacity - 50 thousand people. The structural basis of the structure is 80 radially directed walls and pillars supporting the ceiling vaults. In addition, there are transverse and circular passages, distribution galleries, a system of stairs connecting the interior spaces with exits located around the entire perimeter. The outer walls were made of two layers - concrete and travertine. It is worth noting that concrete is a Roman invention. Marble and knock were used for cladding.

Reconstruction by Bruno Brizzi. Rome, Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum)

The use of awnings was recorded for the first time at the Colosseum - the walls of the fourth tier retained brackets that served as supports for rods, to which a huge silk awning was attached using ropes, saving the local public from the hot sun.

Modern view of the Colosseum

The already mentioned Roman baths or baths are the property of the Roman architectural and cultural traditions in general. They were complex complexes with numerous rooms and courtyards, which were intended both for performing water procedures and for other activities that involved relaxation and entertainment: sports, communication, games, reading, etc. Entrance to the baths was available to everyone. , and since there were enough of them, the dimensions of the halls located along the main axis (the axial composition was used here too) were impressive. The main rooms were still rooms for ablutions, divided by temperature: cold (frigidarium), warm (tepidarium) and high (caldarium). The latter type of premises usually had a pool filled with hot water in the center. The premises were heated - warm air flowed through special channels laid in the walls and floors.

Baths of Caracalla

One of the most outstanding examples of a rotunda temple is the Pantheon in Rome, the construction of which was completed around 125 AD. The diameter of the Pantheon dome is approximately 43 meters. The large-span domed space of the temple was literally unsurpassed until the last century! Roman architects managed to achieve great reliability of the structure and ensure rational distribution of loads. They skillfully used various building materials, using tuft, travestin, various types of lightweight concrete aggregate - pumice and brick crushed stone.

Dome of the Pantheon in Rome

The Christian basilica became especially widespread in the religious construction of the Western Middle Ages.

The Roman architectural tradition, being the successor to the Greek, Egyptian and more ancient schools of architecture, became, in turn, a source of inspiration for many future architects, and its traditional elements can be seen in styles such as Empire, Classicism and others.